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= Community-Based Reef Management = | = Community-Based Reef Management = | ||
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== Community Management and the Current State of Coral Reefs== | == Community Management and the Current State of Coral Reefs== | ||
“Community management is the management of a common resource or issue by a community through the collective action of volunteers and stakeholders.” Community management is important because without implementation, “a community’s material resources may be depleted or rendered unusable.” <ref> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_management </ref> In general, anyone | “Community management is the management of a common resource or issue by a community through the collective action of volunteers and stakeholders.” Community management is important, because without implementation, “a community’s material resources may be depleted or rendered unusable.” <ref> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_management </ref> In general, anyone who contributes to harming coral reefs is responsible and accountable for negative behaviors and should eliminate harmful practices. Local governments, cruise line directors, hotel developers, the community residents, and industries are all responsible for their local and surrounding reefs. <ref name="NYT">http://travel.nytimes.com/2007/06/24/travel/24headsup.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 </ref> There are approximately 450 coral reef areas located in the Pacific and Indian oceans and 67 located in the Caribbean. Scientists observed in more than 60 countries that more than 70%of all coral reefs have been destroyed. Unfortunately, corals are depleting at a faster rate than they are growing. Most corals grow only ½ inch/year. Many industries use coral reefs in the food, construction, medical, and fashion industries. However, coral reefs are, in fact, a limited resource. <ref> http://ambergriscaye.com/reefbriefs/briefs13.html </ref> Fortunately, coral reefs may be “threatened but, they are still salvageable.” <ref> http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/14/opinion/a-world-without-coral-reefs.html </ref> | ||
The role of governments in the Coral Triangle is to recognize and learn about the local factors that contribute to coral reef destruction and then develop strategic and monitored plans to regulate and implement policies. Several governments are implementing actions such as educating communities, creating fishing boundaries, regulating runoff, and reducing carbon emissions to reduce ocean acidification. Countries are most successful when there are many resources at their disposal used to implement and regulate laws and policies <ref> Bryce, Emma. "In the Caribbean Coral Die-Off, Myriad Wrinkles." New York Times 11 09 2012, New York Edition D3. Web. 24 Feb. 2013. http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/09/10/in-the-caribbean-coral-die-off-myriad-wrinkles/. </ref>. Unfortunately, in addition to limited resources, developing countries have a lower GDP per capita, a lower standard of living, and depend economically on the ocean’s resources compared to the United States and other developed countries <ref> "Data: United States." The World Bank. The World Bank Group, 04 02 2013. Web. 2 Apr 2013. <http://data.worldbank.org/country/united-states>. </ref>. In other words, countries with a low standard of living have a primary concern for their personal well-being, not whether they protect coral reefs. For example, economies in Bermuda, Jamaica, and the Bahamas generate revenue from resort communities, the tourism industry, and the fishing industry. Therefore, combining these three industries, results in a destructive coral reef ecosystem surrounding these islands. Understanding the effects of local practices and actions that harm the surrounding coral reef enables scientists to develop solutions to protect and prevent coral reef ecosystem destruction before coral bleaching, fish recruitment, and overexploitation become worse. | The role of governments in the Coral Triangle is to recognize and learn about the local factors that contribute to coral reef destruction and then develop strategic and monitored plans to regulate and implement policies. Several governments are implementing actions such as educating communities, creating fishing boundaries, regulating runoff, and reducing carbon emissions to reduce ocean acidification. Countries are most successful when there are many resources at their disposal used to implement and regulate laws and policies <ref> Bryce, Emma. "In the Caribbean Coral Die-Off, Myriad Wrinkles." New York Times 11 09 2012, New York Edition D3. Web. 24 Feb. 2013. http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/09/10/in-the-caribbean-coral-die-off-myriad-wrinkles/. </ref>. Unfortunately, in addition to limited resources, developing countries have a lower GDP per capita, a lower standard of living, and depend economically on the ocean’s resources compared to the United States and other developed countries <ref> "Data: United States." The World Bank. The World Bank Group, 04 02 2013. Web. 2 Apr 2013. <http://data.worldbank.org/country/united-states>. </ref>. In other words, countries with a low standard of living have a primary concern for their personal well-being, not whether they protect coral reefs. For example, economies in Bermuda, Jamaica, and the Bahamas generate revenue from resort communities, the tourism industry, and the fishing industry. Therefore, combining these three industries, results in a destructive coral reef ecosystem surrounding these islands. Understanding the effects of local practices and actions that harm the surrounding coral reef enables scientists to develop solutions to protect and prevent coral reef ecosystem destruction before coral bleaching, fish recruitment, and overexploitation become worse. | ||
==The Causes of Coral Reef Habitat Depletion== | ==The Causes of Coral Reef Habitat Depletion== | ||
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<br />'''Ocean pH Level''' <ref> Walsh, Brian. "Sea Changes: Ocean Acidification Is Worse Than It’s Been for 300 Million Years." Time 02 03 2012, n. pag. Print. http://science.time.com/2012/03/02/sea-changes-ocean-acidification-is-worse-than-its-been-for-300-million-years/</ref> | <br />'''Ocean pH Level''' <ref> Walsh, Brian. "Sea Changes: Ocean Acidification Is Worse Than It’s Been for 300 Million Years." Time 02 03 2012, n. pag. Print. http://science.time.com/2012/03/02/sea-changes-ocean-acidification-is-worse-than-its-been-for-300-million-years/</ref> | ||
<br />Currently the oceanic pH has decreased from 8.2 to 8.1. Although a small decrease, .1, any change in acidity, turbidity, water temperature, or salinity can drastically impact marine organisms and coral reef structures. For example, if pH levels decrease too much, organisms that survive using carbonate shells for protection can dissolve in acidic waters. | <br />Currently the oceanic pH has decreased from 8.2 to 8.1. Although a small decrease, .1, any change in acidity, turbidity, water temperature, or salinity can drastically impact marine organisms and coral reef structures. For example, if pH levels decrease too much, organisms that survive using carbonate shells for protection can dissolve in acidic waters. | ||
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==Characteristics of Successful Community-Based Management== | ==Characteristics of Successful Community-Based Management== | ||
It is important to create a coral reef management plan with community input that includes not only ecological conditions but also socioeconomic concerns such as environmental regeneration and preservation of the reefs and livelihood enhancement for communities. Plans must be careful to not trade off environmental preservation for poverty. The planning process should be transparent and fair. There must be successful communication between administrative/government officials and stakeholders in the community. Community members must have clear and concise rules of access, withdrawal, and exclusion in regards to reefs and reef fish. Some examples of effective rules include: issuing a limited number of fishing permits and creating user organizations so as to monitor any illegal withdrawal of reef fish.<ref>http://www.worldfishcenter.org/resource_centre/LessonsLearned1804%20-%20FINAL.pdf </ref> | |||
Capacity building within the community, including education and empowerment, is a pivotal part of community-based management. It ensures that community members are | Capacity building within the community, including education and empowerment, is a pivotal part of community-based management. It ensures that community members are cognizant of the importance of coral reefs in global biodiversity and take ownership of them. This can be made possible through comprehensive public awareness campaigns and institutional buy-ins. In the event of conflicts, this capacity building combined with effective communication between stakeholders will facilitate conflict resolution. | ||
In the process of planning truly effective community based management, allowing for iterative feedback loops is essential. These feedback loops make it so that government, interested NGOs, and community members can learn from past mistakes and work together for a more sustainable future. | In the process of planning truly effective community based management, allowing for iterative feedback loops is essential. These feedback loops make it so that government, interested NGOs, and community members can learn from past mistakes and work together for a more sustainable future. | ||
==Effective Community Management Methods== | <!-- This section is useless and generalized | ||
'''Eco-Certification Programs for tourism operators'''<ref> http://travel.nytimes.com/2007/06/24/travel/24headsup.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 </ref> | ==Effective Community Management Methods and Examples== | ||
* '''Eco-Certification Programs for tourism operators'''<ref> http://travel.nytimes.com/2007/06/24/travel/24headsup.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 </ref> | |||
* '''Nature Conservancy’s Coral Triangle Center''' | |||
* The Nature Conservancy's Coral Triangle Center "protects whale migration routes between the Indian and Pacific Oceans.” | |||
* '''Establish well-enforced no-take zone''' | |||
* '''Mangrove Growth''' <ref> http://scientistatwork.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/01/29/diving-into-the-coral-triangle/?ref=reefs </ref> | |||
* Communities in Indonesia are improving the resilience of the reefs and its habitats through maintaining and promoting mangrove growths. Mangroves absorb and filter greenhouse gas emissions as well as pollutants as a result of runoff before they enter the ocean and harm the corals and fish. Mangroves also provide nursery and protected areas for small fish. | |||
<br />'''Others''' | <br />'''Others''' | ||
*Educating the community | *Educating the community | ||
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*Requiring fishing permits | *Requiring fishing permits | ||
*Banning coral mining | *Banning coral mining | ||
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==Case Studies of Successful Community-Based Management== | ==Case Studies of Successful Community-Based Management== | ||
===Indonesia: Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management Program I=== | [[File:Marine reserve.gif|250x265px|frame|Figure 1: Example of a marine reserve system, displaying the demarcation between the traditional use area (fishing allowed) and the reserve area (usually areas with more disturbed coral cover, so are treated more as protected areas). <ref name="sd"> http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X9900243X </ref>]] | ||
In Indonesia, the Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management Program | |||
=== The Coral Triangle === | |||
The Coral Triangle includes Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and Timor-Leste. Currently, the Coral Triangle sustains 590 species of reef-building coral and 4,000 species of fish. <ref> http://scientistatwork.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/01/29/diving-into-the-coral-triangle/?ref=reefs </ref> In addition, the Coral Triangle provides 120 million people that live in the surrounding area with food, income, and protection from harsh storms. Today, there is a multi-billion dollar tuna industry that relies heavily on the Coral Triangle reefs and its inhabitants, tuna. <ref> http://worldwildlife.org/places/coral-triangle </ref> However, because tuna is a common resource, this formerly abundant species is suffering from a tragedy of the commons. Tragedy of the commons is the tendency of any resource that is unowned and non-excludable to be overused and under-maintained. <ref> Cowen, Tyler, and Alex Tabarrok. Modern Principles of Economics. 2nd ed. New York : Worth , 2011. 348. Print. </ref> | |||
[[File:CoralTriangle.gif|250x136px|frame|Figure: The Coral Triangle map includes Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and Timor-Leste.<ref> http://www.thelivingocean.net/2012/06/sustaining-coral-triangles-marine.html </ref>]] | |||
===Indonesia: Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management Program I <ref name="sd" /> === | |||
In Indonesia, the Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management Program was put into place to combat overfishing and overall reef degradation. After this community-based project was implemented, compliance increased by 10%. Illegal and [[overfishing]] as well as [[CoralMining|coral mining]] in pilot locations decreased by 50% after the management project was constructed. | |||
Some of the lessons learned from Indonesia’s experiment with community-based coral reef management include that communities must be central to the planning, implementation, and post-project portions of the project. Also, there should be communication and agreement between national/state/local governments as well as coastal communities. | Some of the lessons learned from Indonesia’s experiment with community-based coral reef management include that communities must be central to the planning, implementation, and post-project portions of the project. Also, there should be communication and agreement between national/state/local governments as well as coastal communities. | ||
===Community-Based | ===Community-Based Reef Conservation in the Philippines=== | ||
==== San Salvador Island ==== | |||
<ref> http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08941929409380849 </ref> | <ref> http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08941929409380849 </ref> | ||
Community-based coral reef management was implemented in San Salvador island in the Philippines in 1988. Through community education and organization program participants developed municipal marine parks, non-fishing sanctuaries, and fishing reserves surrounding the island. This reduced destructive fishing methods | Community-based coral reef management was implemented in San Salvador island in the Philippines in 1988. Through community education and organization program participants developed municipal marine parks, non-fishing sanctuaries, and fishing reserves surrounding the island. This reduced destructive fishing methods, such as blasting, fine mesh nets and sodium cyanide, that lead to a decline in fish population. | ||
Education, capacity building, and the implementation of concrete community projects was done through training community leaders with the knowledge and skills for sustainable resource management, as well as establishing a network system to increase knowledge dissemination. | Education, capacity building, and the implementation of concrete community projects was done through training community leaders with the knowledge and skills for sustainable resource management, as well as establishing a network system to increase knowledge dissemination. | ||
[[File:Substrate change.gif|250x136px|frame|Figure 2: Graph displays steady increases in soft and hard coral cover over past two decades.]] | [[File:Substrate change.gif|250x136px|frame|Figure 2: Graph displays steady increases in soft and hard coral cover over past two decades.]]<ref name="sd" /> | ||
=== | ==== Other Examples ==== | ||
Community-based management was put into place in the provinces of Negros Oriental, Batangas, and the Tubbataha Reef National Marine Park in Palawan. In Negros and Batangas, coastal communities and fishermen | Community-based management was put into place in the provinces of Negros Oriental, Batangas, and the Tubbataha Reef National Marine Park in Palawan. In Negros and Batangas, coastal communities and fishermen were included in the decision-making process. After implementation of this program these communities fish using nondestructive methods that allow reef fish to regenerate sustainably. The reefs are divided into zones so that fishing does not happen in breeding grounds. Since this policy was put into place coral reef cover for both hard and soft corals has been increasing.<ref name="sd" /> | ||
==Conclusion== | ==Conclusion== | ||
Through identifying three community-based management systems located in the Coral Triangle, Indonesia, San Salvador Island, and other provinces in the Philippines, scientists analyze the impacts communities have on both marine waters and marine biodiversity. After identifying the island’s local factors that contribute to marine destruction, scientists and government officials work to develop a community-based management plan to prevent and protect the surrounding waters, plants, animals, and coral reef ecosystems. With proper funding and support, educating the community, regulating industrial runoff, establishing non-fishing reserves, training community leaders, protecting whale migration routes, dividing reef zones based on breeding grounds, requiring fishing permits, banning coral mining, and increasing mangrove growths are just a few community-based management projects implemented throughout the Coral Triangle region. Since implementing these community-based management projects, the Coral Triangle region’s coral reefs are improving in health and rebuilding fish populations. | Through identifying three community-based management systems located in the Coral Triangle, Indonesia, San Salvador Island, and other provinces in the Philippines, scientists analyze the impacts communities have on both marine waters and marine biodiversity. After identifying the island’s local factors that contribute to marine destruction, scientists and government officials work to develop a community-based management plan to prevent and protect the surrounding waters, plants, animals, and coral reef ecosystems. With proper funding and support, educating the community, regulating industrial runoff, establishing non-fishing reserves, training community leaders, protecting whale migration routes, dividing reef zones based on breeding grounds, requiring fishing permits, banning coral mining, and increasing mangrove growths are just a few community-based management projects implemented throughout the Coral Triangle region. Since implementing these community-based management projects, the Coral Triangle region’s coral reefs are improving in health and rebuilding fish populations. | ||
<references/> | <references/> | ||
Revision as of 11:26, 28 May 2013
Community-Based Reef Management
Characteristics of Successful Community-Based Management
It is important to create a coral reef management plan with community input that includes not only ecological conditions but also socioeconomic concerns such as environmental regeneration and preservation of the reefs and livelihood enhancement for communities. Plans must be careful to not trade off environmental preservation for poverty. The planning process should be transparent and fair. There must be successful communication between administrative/government officials and stakeholders in the community. Community members must have clear and concise rules of access, withdrawal, and exclusion in regards to reefs and reef fish. Some examples of effective rules include: issuing a limited number of fishing permits and creating user organizations so as to monitor any illegal withdrawal of reef fish.[1]
Capacity building within the community, including education and empowerment, is a pivotal part of community-based management. It ensures that community members are cognizant of the importance of coral reefs in global biodiversity and take ownership of them. This can be made possible through comprehensive public awareness campaigns and institutional buy-ins. In the event of conflicts, this capacity building combined with effective communication between stakeholders will facilitate conflict resolution.
In the process of planning truly effective community based management, allowing for iterative feedback loops is essential. These feedback loops make it so that government, interested NGOs, and community members can learn from past mistakes and work together for a more sustainable future.
Case Studies of Successful Community-Based Management
The Coral Triangle
The Coral Triangle includes Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and Timor-Leste. Currently, the Coral Triangle sustains 590 species of reef-building coral and 4,000 species of fish. [3] In addition, the Coral Triangle provides 120 million people that live in the surrounding area with food, income, and protection from harsh storms. Today, there is a multi-billion dollar tuna industry that relies heavily on the Coral Triangle reefs and its inhabitants, tuna. [4] However, because tuna is a common resource, this formerly abundant species is suffering from a tragedy of the commons. Tragedy of the commons is the tendency of any resource that is unowned and non-excludable to be overused and under-maintained. [5]
Indonesia: Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management Program I [2]
In Indonesia, the Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management Program was put into place to combat overfishing and overall reef degradation. After this community-based project was implemented, compliance increased by 10%. Illegal and overfishing as well as coral mining in pilot locations decreased by 50% after the management project was constructed.
Some of the lessons learned from Indonesia’s experiment with community-based coral reef management include that communities must be central to the planning, implementation, and post-project portions of the project. Also, there should be communication and agreement between national/state/local governments as well as coastal communities.
Community-Based Reef Conservation in the Philippines
San Salvador Island
[7] Community-based coral reef management was implemented in San Salvador island in the Philippines in 1988. Through community education and organization program participants developed municipal marine parks, non-fishing sanctuaries, and fishing reserves surrounding the island. This reduced destructive fishing methods, such as blasting, fine mesh nets and sodium cyanide, that lead to a decline in fish population.
Education, capacity building, and the implementation of concrete community projects was done through training community leaders with the knowledge and skills for sustainable resource management, as well as establishing a network system to increase knowledge dissemination.
Other Examples
Community-based management was put into place in the provinces of Negros Oriental, Batangas, and the Tubbataha Reef National Marine Park in Palawan. In Negros and Batangas, coastal communities and fishermen were included in the decision-making process. After implementation of this program these communities fish using nondestructive methods that allow reef fish to regenerate sustainably. The reefs are divided into zones so that fishing does not happen in breeding grounds. Since this policy was put into place coral reef cover for both hard and soft corals has been increasing.[2]
Conclusion
Through identifying three community-based management systems located in the Coral Triangle, Indonesia, San Salvador Island, and other provinces in the Philippines, scientists analyze the impacts communities have on both marine waters and marine biodiversity. After identifying the island’s local factors that contribute to marine destruction, scientists and government officials work to develop a community-based management plan to prevent and protect the surrounding waters, plants, animals, and coral reef ecosystems. With proper funding and support, educating the community, regulating industrial runoff, establishing non-fishing reserves, training community leaders, protecting whale migration routes, dividing reef zones based on breeding grounds, requiring fishing permits, banning coral mining, and increasing mangrove growths are just a few community-based management projects implemented throughout the Coral Triangle region. Since implementing these community-based management projects, the Coral Triangle region’s coral reefs are improving in health and rebuilding fish populations.
- ↑ http://www.worldfishcenter.org/resource_centre/LessonsLearned1804%20-%20FINAL.pdf
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X9900243X
- ↑ http://scientistatwork.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/01/29/diving-into-the-coral-triangle/?ref=reefs
- ↑ http://worldwildlife.org/places/coral-triangle
- ↑ Cowen, Tyler, and Alex Tabarrok. Modern Principles of Economics. 2nd ed. New York : Worth , 2011. 348. Print.
- ↑ http://www.thelivingocean.net/2012/06/sustaining-coral-triangles-marine.html
- ↑ http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08941929409380849