MPAs
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)
What are Marine Protected areas?
MPA's were created to alleviate the negative human interaction that causes stress on marine ecosystems. These include, overfishshing or destructive fishing, coastal development,pollution and runoff, introduction of non-native species, climate change warming seas and ocean acidification. However, unlike common misconception, most MPAs are not completely closed to humans or prohibit fishing. There are several varying levels of conservation and management regulations: "conservation focus, level of protection, permanence of protection, constancy of protection, and ecological scale of protection." [1]. Also, MPAs can differ due to scales on the federal, state, tribal, or international level and were first established in the U.S. in May 2000 by Executive Order 13158. [2] Additionally, they widely vary by habitat, including the open ocean, coastal areas, inter-tidal zones, estuaries, mangroves, coral reefs and lakes. [3]
Therefore, it becomes clear that the precise definition of a Marine Protected Areas can be seen as controversial. Some scientists call it too vague while others see value in its flexibility.
In 1999 the definition given by the ICUN was "Any area of intertidal or subtidal terrain,together with its overlying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by law or other effective means to protect part or all of the enclosed environment."
In 2008, the definition was reviewed and extended to encompass all protected areas as “A clearly defined geographical space, recognized,dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values.” [4]
Some conservation organizations, such as the Waitt Foundation, have further specified the legality “to conserve biodiversity, manage natural resources, protect endangered species, reduce user conflicts, provide educational and research opportunities, and enhance commercial and recreational fisheries.”[5]
However, it is still remains under review today. Definition is crucial in that it is not meant just to categorize the area, but to direct management and conservation objectives. In fact, due to lack of specificity in the definition about 50% of MPA's are considered to have been allocated falsely.[6]
Importance of MPAs [7]
Many marine ecosystems are threatened by human activity and will not be able to support themselves without intervention
The global fish catch has continued to decline in recent years, but MPAs have the ability to prevent complete overexploitation
MPAs maintain biodiversity and fish breeding stocks by replenishing exploited populations
They support local economies through sustainable fishing and the promotion of ecotourism
Characteristics of MPAs [8]
The National Marine Protected Areas Center has five characteristics to evaluate MPAs:
1. Conservation focus
2. Level of protection
3. Permanence of protection
4. Consistency of protection
5. Ecological scale of protection
Management and Regulation
The IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) uses different categories to protect marine areas [9]
1. Strict Nature Reserve: maximum protection, less than 1%
2. Wilderness area
3. National park (Marine Park): minimal human use, large emphasis on conservation
4. National monument or feature: protect historical or cultural marine sites
5. Habitat/species management area
6. Protected landscape/seascape: more limited regulation
7. Protected area with sustainable use of natural resources
Types of MPAs [10]
MPAs are defined by their level of protection and use the above IUCN guidelines
Types of MPAs include:
1. Uniform Multiple-Use: restrict some activities, most common
2. Zoned Multiple-Use: allow different human activities in different areas
3. Zoned Multiple-Use with No-Take Areas: includes one zone where resources cannot be removed
4. No-Take: allow human activity but prohibit removing resources
5. No Impact: allow human activity but prohibit all those that could be potentially harmful
6. No Access: prohibit all human activity; extremely rare
Location
How to determine location:
When selecting areas for protection of marine reserves, it is important to consider the sources and sinks, dispersal range, and metapopulations. The ideal arrangement is for a highly protected core area surrounded by a buffer zone. This can be achieved either as a large zoned MPA, or as a set of small MPAs with complementary regulations controlling use of the surrounding areas. Also, consideration of the local needs and livelihood of the people is important to implement an effective area rather than a disrespected one. The ICUN published a set of Criteria used to aid in developing MPA's
- Biogeographic criteria
- Presence of rare biogeographic qualities or representative of a biogeographic “type” or types
- Existence of unique or unusual geological features
- Ecological criteria
- Ecological processes or life-support systems (e.g. as a source for larvae for downstream areas)
- Integrity, or the degree to which the area, either alone or in association with other protected areas, encompasses a complete ecosystem
- The variety of habitats
- Presence of habitat for rare or endangered species
- Presence of nursery or juvenile areas
- Presence of feeding, breeding or rest areas
- Existence of rare or unique habitat for any species
- Degree of genetic diversity within species
- Naturalness
Extent to which the area has been protected from, or has not been subject to, human-induced change
- Economic importance
Existing or potential economic contribution due to protection (e.g. protection of an area for recreation, subsistence, use by traditional inhabitants, appreciation by tourists and others, or as a refuge nursery area or source of economically important species)
- Social importance
Existing or potential value to local, national or international communities because of its heritage, historical, cultural, traditional, aesthetic, educational or recreational qualities
- Scientific importance
Value for research and monitoring
- International or national significance
Existence of any national or international designation Potential for listing on a national or international system
- Practicality or feasibility
- Degree of insulation from external destructive influences
- Social and political acceptability, degree of community support
- Accessibility for education, tourism, recreation
- Compatibility with existing uses, particularly by locals
- Ease of management or compatibility with existing management regimes
Where MPa's are located:
According to estimates from the World Conservation Monitoring Centre’s Protected Areas Database, there are about 400 MPA's across the globe. This number in comparison to the terrestrial protected areas, is lacking. The amount of protection, covering less than 2% of the ocean, is not enough to combat the immense damage and stress. 150 of MPAs are less than one square kilometer in size and likely that less than 3 percent of the world’s coral reefs are protected. In fact, over 40 countries do not have any coral reef formal protection. This is important to note because MPA's work best when integrated into a comprehensive network and global cooperation that views the marine ecosystem as a whole. So far action has mainly been determined by national policy and importance.[12]
International Conventions Sites by region (Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic and Southern Oceans)
Effects of Marine Protected Areas
Studies have shown that “no take” marine protected areas, not only double the amount of fish but also their size, in a very short period of time. They also serve as safe breeding grounds for key threatened species, such as whales and marine turtles, whilst protecting a variety of marine ecosystems and the rich biodiversity they sustain. [1]Additionally, coral cover remained constant in MPA's, while coral cover on unprotected reefs declined. [13]
The Partnership for Interdisciplinary Studies of Coastal Oceans found in a survey of more than 100 marine reserves worldwide found a 446% average increase in biomass and a 166% increase in number of animals and plants. Also noted was an average increase in body size of sea life by 28% as well as an increase in species density by 21% [14]
Marine protected not only a recovery and conservation of a healthy ocean, they also provide a wide range of ecosystem services.
Secure human population nourishment Reduce destruction from Natural Disaster Beneficial to Tourism local governance and benefits if community managed Improve Health and alleviate poverty [15]
Suggestions/Solutions
Continue to take create MPAs on all levels and promote global communication between preserves
Connected MPAs (example: California)
Work with and educate local fisherman on the benefits of MPAs to gain support
A global MPA network covering 20–30% of the ocean would cost $5–19 billion per year but it would also increase fish catch, currently worth $70–80 billion annually, ensure ecosystem services worth $4.5–6.7 trillion each year, and cost less than the amount already spent by developed world governments on harmful subsidies to industrial fisheries estimated between $15 and $30 billion each year [16]
Notes
- ↑ http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/ecosystems/mpa/#4
- ↑ http://mpa.gov
- ↑ http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/mpaloc.html
- ↑ http://depts.washington.edu/mpanews/MPA102.pdf
- ↑ http://waittfoundation.org/marine-protected-areas#sthash.WEiE0X18.dpuf
- ↑ http://www.iucnworldconservationcongress.org/news___press/?10904/When-is-an-MPA-really-an-MPA
- ↑ http://www.environment.gov.au/coasts/mpa/publications/pubs/benefits-mpas.pdf
- ↑ [http://www.mpa.gov/aboutmpas/
- ↑ http://www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/gpap_home/gpap_quality/gpap_pacategories/
- ↑ http://www.mpa.gov/pdf/helpful-resources/factsheets/mpa_classification_may2011.pdf
- ↑ wwww.vliz.be/imisdocs/publications/64732.pdf
- ↑ http://www.wri.org/map/marine-protected-areas-world
- ↑ http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0009278
- ↑ http://waittfoundation.org/marine-protected-areas#sthash.WEiE0X18.dpuf
- ↑ http://www.nature.org/ourscience/protected-areas-how-marine-protected-areas-help-alleviate-poverty.xml
- ↑ http://www.pnas.org/content/101/26/9694.long