Overfishing

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Overfishing

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The use of exploitive and destructive fishing practices on coral reefs is a globally extensive problem with a long history. Indeed, species extinction due to overfishing dates earlier than that by all other factors, including pollution, water quality degradation, and climate change. [1] Despite its reputation as an early, destructive anthropogenic influence on coral reefs, overfishing is still a growing problem. The global fishing effort has steadily increased since 1970[2] with no signs of abatement in the near future.

History

A variety of evidence exists for determining historical fishing pressure on coral reefs. This evidence includes paleological sedimentary records, archeological records from human coastal settlements, written historical documents, and ecological records from scientific literature. In recent times, extensive scientific studies have been conducted to further define the correlation between human fishing practices and ecological issues worldwide. Through this lens, three periods of fishery exploitation can be identified: aboriginal or subsistence exploitation, characterized by simple technologies and a limited geographic extent; colonial or systematic exploitation, characterized by merchantile powers utilizing distant resources; and more recently, geographically pervasive global exploitation. [1] This most recent period is the one that has caused the sharpest decline in fisheries habitats, starting a domino effect in marine ecosystems on a global scale.

Causes

The exploitation of coral reef fisheries is largely due to increased demand on the global market for reef fish.[3] The issue of overfishing is therefore difficult to mitigate, because it is tied to global economic and population growth and increasing demand on a global scale. Since it is driven by global economic growth, it would require at least 20-50 years to change the trend of overfishing, even if strong effort to stop the issue began immediately.[4] Even as fish populations are depleted and global catch declines, fishing pressure continues to increase.[5] Based on catch data and estimates for increasing rates of fishing pressure, it is estimated that if overfishing continues without intervention, the world's fisheries will collapse by 2048.[4]

The recent use of technology in fishing practices has also accelerated the rate at which fish are removed from reefs. Modern fishing instruments such as sonar and GPS make it much easier for fishermen to locate and catch huge schools of fish. The use of huge, industrial fishing vessels, with the capacity to access a larger area and hold great amounts of fish on board, has also increased the rate at which fish are removed from the environment.[6] As overfishing continues to lower fish population sizes, there is increasing need for more efficient technology and greater fishing pressure, which creates a cycle of destructive fishing that is difficult to stop.[7]

Source: [7]

It is also difficult for both governments and NGOs to effectively manage and regulate reef fisheries, which in many places may allow for unsustainable fishing practices to occur on a large scale, resulting in overfishing of the reefs.[8]

Effects

Overfishing of reef environments has significant impacts on ecosystem function. The removal of top predators leads to explosions in the populations of lower level consumers. These consumers then overgraze on corals and coralline algae and cause coral abundance to decrease. Eventually, as more slow growing corals are removed, fast-growing seaweeds and macro algae can overtake the environment, replacing coral [9] . However, a stable population of herbivorous fish is necessary for healthy ecosystem function and overfishing of herbivorous fish can also have profound ecosystem effects. Sufficiently dense populations of grazing fish and sea urchins are necessary because they abate non-coralline algae growth, which in can hinder coral growth when in excess.[9][10] A recent study published in Fish and Fisheries, focused on parrotfish, found that a divided management strategy could protect diversity in complex reef areas and increase overall numbers of fish. The study suggested that fishing for parrotfish should be prohibited on areas of the reef with massive and branching corals, where they play an important role of algae-grazer. Fishing could then be allowed on flat areas of the reef dominated by soft corals, where algal grazing is not as crucial. [11]

Heavy fishing and harmful fishing techniques also have the capacity to do great damage to reef structures. The use of explosives or chemicals as well as some netting and trapping techniques damage coral substrate. Dynamite fishing and cyanide fishing are predominantly used in reefs in Southeast Asia. It is estimated that 56% of reefs in Southeast Asia are at risk as a result of these destructive fishing practices.[12] The damage done to the coral substrate and the habitats of coral fish and creatures also continues to make them more vulnerable to stresses such as overfishing or destructive fishing.[1]

Source: [7]

Management

Generally, coral reefs exhibit an inverted biomass pyramid, made possible by the external recruitment of a number of larval fish species. In the past, management efforts have predominantly focused on bottom-up processes, including the importance of herbivorous fish populations on abating harmful algae growth. However, increased fishing pressure has altered trophic level interactions,[13] necessitating the additional consideration of top-down processes when developing management strategies and practices. Some even advocate for management practices that have goals other than maximizing predatory and herbivorous fish stocks, focusing instead on higher cover of settlement-inducing crustose coralline algae to maintain the ecological and structural integrity of reefs.[14] However, the most widely recommended policies are those that advocate for management with multiple goals on an ecosystem scale to predict and avoid possible cascading effects.[1][15] In contrast, small-scale management practices are often made difficult and ineffective by the large-scale connectivity inherent in coral reef ecosystems, necessitating an increase in the scale of management, and specifically a network of interdependent reserves to maintain biodiversity.[16]

For more, see the Fisheries Management page.

Recent Findings

  • A quarter of the world’s sharks and rays are threatened with extinction according to The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™, with ray species found to be at a higher risk than sharks. The findings are part of the first ever global analysis of these species carried out by the IUCN Shark Specialist Group (SSG).[17]

2015 Group Outline

First we would expand on the history section. It currently mentions the three periods, but doesn't go in depth about what they are or what they mean. We would expand on this and talk about the latter two to give context to the one we are currently in. The next thing we plan to do is split the causes section in two separate sections: causes and methods. The causes section will discuss the cultural reasons overfishing occurs, such as the overcapacity of fishing vessels and rising food demands that accompany population growth. The methods section will go further into detail about the techniques fishers use to overfish, such as blast fishing and the sonar systems already mentioned. We also plan to expand the recent findings sections, considering it's only 2 sentences. We'll discuss the the future outlook of coral reefs and implications of that on a global scale.

Sources


Greer K, Harper S, Zeller D. 2014. Evidence for overfishing on pristine coral reefs: reconstructing coastal catches in the Australian Indian Ocean Territories. Journal of the Indian Ocean Region (**Edition**) [Internet]. [2014 Jun, cited 2015 Feb 22] 10(1):67-80. Available from: http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=4&sid=3ff90a1b-e093-427e-916a-2b3b35c74345%40sessionmgr115&hid=106&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#db=aph&AN=95755527

Maynard J, Anthony K, Afatta S. 2010. Making a Model Meaningful to Coral Reef Managers in a Developing Nation: a Case Study of Overfishing and Rock Anchoring in Indonesia. Conservation Biology (**Edition**) [Internet]. [2010 Oct, cited 2015 Feb 23] 24(5):1316-1326. Available from: http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=5&sid=3ff90a1b-e093-427e-916a-2b3b35c74345%40sessionmgr115&hid=106&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3Qt


Liu P, Shao K, Jan R. 2009. A trophic model of fringing coral reefs in Nanwan Bay, southern Taiwan suggests overfishing. Marine Environmental Research (**Edition**) [Internet]. [2009 Sep, cited 2015 Feb 22] 68(3):106-117. Available from: https://docs.google.com/document/d/1qbnybk6xiRVXPgXzLXAbSyn9lwd4FGPxPghdLqCtW-0/edit

Teh L, Teh L, Sumaila U. 2013. A Global Estimate of the Number of Coral Reef Fishers. PLoS ONE (**Edition**) [Internet]. [2013 Jun, cited 2015 ] 8(6):1-10. Available from: http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=12&sid=3ff90a1b-e093-427e-916a-2b3b35c74345%40sessionmgr115&hid=106&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#db=aph&AN=88908473

Jessen C, Roder C, Villa Lizcano J. 2013. In-Situ Effects of Simulated Overfishing and Eutrophication on Benthic Coral Reef Algae Growth, Succession, and Composition in the Central Red Sea. PLoS (**Edition**) [Internet]. [2013 Jun, cited 2015 Feb 23] 8(6):1-13. Available from: http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=14&sid=3ff90a1b-e093-427e-916a-2b3b35c74345%40sessionmgr115&hid=106&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#db=aph&AN=88909875

2014 Nov 11. Overfishing- emptying our seas [Internet]. Greenpeace [2014 Nov 11, cited 2015 Feb 24] . Available from: http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/oceans/problems/overfishing-emptying-our-seas

The Causes of overfishing [Internet].World Ocean Review; [cited 2015 Feb 24] . Available from: http://worldoceanreview.com/en/wor-1/fisheries/causes-of-overfishing/

End of group sources

References

  1. 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Jackson, J.B.C., Kirby, M.X., Berger, W.H., Bjorndal, K.A., Botsford, L.W., Bourque, B.J., Bradbury, R.H., Cooke, R., Erlandson, J.,Estes, J.A., Hughes, T.P., Kidwell, S., Lange, C.B., Lenihan, H.S., Pandolfi, J.M., Peterson, C.H., Steneck, R.S., Tegner, M.J., and Warner, R.R. 2001. Historical overfishing and the recent collapse of coastal ecosystems. Science 293(5530): 629-638.
  2. Anticamara, J.A., Watson, B., Gelchu, A., and Pauly, D. 2011. Global fishing effort (1950–2010): Trends, gaps, and implications. Fisheries Research 107(1-3): 131-136.
  3. Cinner, J.E., and McClanahan, T.R. 2006. Socioeconomic factors that lead to overfishing in small-scale coral reef fisheries of Papua New Guinea. Environmental Conservation 33(1): 73-80.
  4. 4.0 4.1 Overfishing. National Geographic. Web. http://ocean.nationalgeographic.com/ocean/critical-issues-overfishing/
  5. Bradbury, R. 2012. A World Without Coral Reefs. The New York Times. Web. <http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/14/opinion/a-world-without-coral-reefs.html?_r=0>.
  6. Fishing Technology. Saving the Oceans. MIT. Web. http://web.mit.edu/12.000/www/m2011/finalwebsite/problem/present/tech.shtml
  7. 7.0 7.1 7.2 Human Impact on the Great Barrier Reef. University of Michigan. Web. <http://sitemaker.umich.edu/gc2sec7labgroup3/over-fishing>.
  8. Overfishing. World Wildlife Fund. Web. http://worldwildlife.org/threats/overfishing
  9. 9.0 9.1 Smith, J.E. 2010. Coral Reef Loss: Determining the Importance of Overfishing and Nutrient Pollution in the Global Decline of Coral Reefs. National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis. Web. <http://www.nceas.ucsb.edu/featured/smith>.
  10. Ruppert JLW, Travers MJ, Smith LL, Fortin M-J, Meekan MG (2013) Caught in the Middle: Combined Impacts of Shark Removal and Coral Loss on the Fish Communities of Coral Reefs. PLoS ONE 8(9): e74648. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0074648 http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0074648
  11. Peter J. Mumby, “Stratifying Herbivore Fisheries by Habitat to Avoid Ecosystem Overfishing of Coral Reefs,” Fish and Fisheries (March 17, 2014), doi:10.1111/faf.12078.
  12. 2008. Exploitative Fishing. The Coral Reef Alliance. Web. http://www.coral.org/node/130.
  13. Valentine, J.F, and Heck, K.L. 2005. Perspective review of the impacts of overfishing on coral reef food web linkages. Coral Reefs 24(2): 209-213
  14. O’Leary, J.K., Potts, D.C., Braga, J.C., and McClanahan, T.R. 2012. Indirect consequences of fishing: reduction of coralline algae suppresses juvenile coral abundance. Coral Reefs 31: 547-559.
  15. Scheffer, M., Carpenter, S., and de Young, B. 2005. Cascading effects of overfishing marine systems. Trends in Technology & Evolution 20(11): 579-581.
  16. Roberts, C.M. 1997. Connectivity and management of Caribbean coral reefs. Science 278(5342): 1454-1457.
  17. http://www.iucn.org/?uNewsID=14311
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