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==Do warmer Sea Surface Temperatures (SST) play a role in increased Flooding?==
==Do warmer Sea Surface Temperatures (SST) play a role in increased Flooding?==
[[File:RecentSeaLevelRises.gif]]
[[File:RecentSeaLevelRises.gif]]
There are many factors that contribute to the rise in sea surface temperatures (SST). The two main factors are human activities such as pollution, and natural heat exchange. This has become a large problem for many reasons. SSTs play an important role in the ocean's heat content and they also regulate the climate and control weather changes. For example, higher ocean temperatures have been shown to lead to more severe storms. This is because warmer surface water dissipates more readily into vapor, making it easier for small ocean storms to escalate into larger, more powerful storms. Records show that their has been an increase in strength and prevalence of tropical storms such as hurricanes and cyclones. <ref> Wilson, Mark. "Sea Temperature Rise -- Pristine Seas -- National Geographic." National Geographic. National Geographic, 2016. Web. 13 Apr. 2016. </ref>
:There are many factors that contribute to the rise in sea surface temperatures (SST). The two main factors are human activities such as pollution, and natural heat exchange. This has become a large problem for many reasons. SSTs play an important role in the ocean's heat content and they also regulate the climate and control weather changes. For example, higher ocean temperatures have been shown to lead to more severe storms. This is because warmer surface water dissipates more readily into vapor, making it easier for small ocean storms to escalate into larger, more powerful storms. Records show that their has been an increase in strength and prevalence of tropical storms such as hurricanes and cyclones. <ref> Wilson, Mark. "Sea Temperature Rise -- Pristine Seas -- National Geographic." National Geographic. National Geographic, 2016. Web. 13 Apr. 2016. </ref>


According to the European Environmental Agency (EEA), in 2015 the sea surface temperatures were approximately one degree Celsius higher than 140 years ago. <ref> "Rising Sea Surface Temperature: Towards Ice-free Arctic Summers and a Changing Marine Food Chain." — European Environment Agency. European Environment Agency, 24 Mar. 2015. Web. 13 Apr. 2016. </ref> These temperature increases are expected to persist, as well. Due to these changes, during the 20th century, sea levels rose 15-20cm (1.5-2.0 mm/year). In the past decade, studies have indicated that sea levels have jumped to 3.1 mm/year. According to John Church and James Hansen, 21st century sea levels rise estimates range from 1-2 meters. <ref> "OCEANS & SEA LEVEL RISE." Climate Change and Sea Level Rise. Climate Institute, 2010. Web. 13 Apr. 2016. </ref> While this may not seem major, studies show that a sea level increase of even half a meter can cause severe damage to Small Island Developing States (SIDS)who are most affected by sea surface temperature changes, tropical storms, and sea level rises. <ref> Hon, Tom R. "Autumn 2009 Climate Alert." : The High Stakes for Small Islands. Climate Institute, 2010. Web. 13 Apr. 2016. </ref> Many Pacific countries have already reported regular floods from ocean water. Concern for future flooding continues to be expressed.
:According to the European Environmental Agency (EEA), in 2015 the sea surface temperatures were approximately one degree Celsius higher than 140 years ago. <ref> "Rising Sea Surface Temperature: Towards Ice-free Arctic Summers and a Changing Marine Food Chain." — European Environment Agency. European Environment Agency, 24 Mar. 2015. Web. 13 Apr. 2016. </ref> These temperature increases are expected to persist, as well. Due to these changes, during the 20th century, sea levels rose 15-20cm (1.5-2.0 mm/year). In the past decade, studies have indicated that sea levels have jumped to 3.1 mm/year. According to John Church and James Hansen, 21st century sea levels rise estimates range from 1-2 meters. <ref> "OCEANS & SEA LEVEL RISE." Climate Change and Sea Level Rise. Climate Institute, 2010. Web. 13 Apr. 2016. </ref> While this may not seem major, studies show that a sea level increase of even half a meter can cause severe damage to Small Island Developing States (SIDS)who are most affected by sea surface temperature changes, tropical storms, and sea level rises. <ref> Hon, Tom R. "Autumn 2009 Climate Alert." : The High Stakes for Small Islands. Climate Institute, 2010. Web. 13 Apr. 2016. </ref> Many Pacific countries have already reported regular floods from ocean water. Concern for future flooding continues to be expressed.


Thermal expansion has also been a large problem. This occurs when the water temperature increases and water surface area expands due to the high activity of water particles. Scientists have estimated that thermal expansion alone has contributed to 2.5 cm of sea level rise in the last half of the 20th century. <ref> "OCEANS & SEA LEVEL RISE." Climate Change and Sea Level Rise. Climate Institute, 2010. Web. 13 Apr. 2016. </ref> These findings demonstrate that warmer sea surface temperatures lead to an increase in flooding through the rise in sea levels, the increase in strong storms, and thermal expansion. The primary cause for all of these changes is human pollution.
:Thermal expansion has also been a large problem. This occurs when the water temperature increases and water surface area expands due to the high activity of water particles. Scientists have estimated that thermal expansion alone has contributed to 2.5 cm of sea level rise in the last half of the 20th century. <ref> "OCEANS & SEA LEVEL RISE." Climate Change and Sea Level Rise. Climate Institute, 2010. Web. 13 Apr. 2016. </ref> These findings demonstrate that warmer sea surface temperatures lead to an increase in flooding through the rise in sea levels, the increase in strong storms, and thermal expansion. The primary cause for all of these changes is human pollution.


== Notes ==
== Notes ==
<references />
<references />

Revision as of 21:28, 13 April 2016

Sea Surface Temperatures (SSTs)

What are Sea Surface Temperatures (SST) and how are they measured?

Average Sea Surface Temperature 2011 [1]


Sea Surface Temperature is a measure of the energy created by the motion of the water molecules at the top layer of the ocean also known as the near-surface layer. SSTs vary primarily with latitude but other factors can also affect it. Temperatures are measured between 10 micrometers below the surface with infrared bands and 1 millimeter below the surface with microwave bands using a radiometer.[2] Historically before the 1980s, SST was measured with instruments on shorelines, ships, and buoys, however this was not the most precise or accurate measure. Currently, the bulk of SSTs are measured by remote sensing from satellites measuring electromagnetic radiation produced by motion of the charged particle. The motion of the charged particle produces electromagnetic radiation and the amplitude of the infrared and microwave wavelengths vary with temperature, which is sensed by the satellites and recorded. Even with these new ways of measuring SST, there are still some floating instruments in the ocean that measure temperature, too. [2]

Why and how are Sea Surface Temperatures rising?

Natural
Heat Exchange between Atmosphere and Ocean [3]
There is naturally a heat exchange between the ocean and the atmosphere. The ocean is warmed directly from the sun as solar radiation is absorbed and also from contact with the warmer atmosphere. As the ocean water absorbs the atmosphere's excess heat it begins to get warmer and the temperature gradient reverses and heat is exchanged back to the atmosphereCite error: Invalid <ref> tag; invalid names, e.g. too many.
Dominant atmospheric factors driving ocean temperature include wind speed, air temperature, cloudiness, and humidity; dominant oceanic factors include heat transport by currents and vertical mixing. Fluctuations in sea surface temperatures vary with the seasons.[4]
Anthropogenic
Human activities are causing increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere which traps heat and increases the atmosphere's temperature. As the atmosphere heats up the temperature gradient between the ocean and atmosphere lessens and heat can't leave the ocean to go back to the atmosphere.
Feedback Loops
The relationship between ocean-atmosphere heat exchanges and global weather and climate patterns can be explained by feedback loops.
As an example, in the case of thermal expansion, given an equal mass, the total volume of ocean waters decrease when ocean temperatures drop and expand when temperatures increase. Due to this property, when sea surface temperatures increase, sea surface volume increases leading to sea surface level increases.
Positive Feedback: warming of sea surface temperatures leads to increased ice melting and evaporation and increased humidity creates more intense storms, more extreme precipitation, and wind events. Some areas because of increased evaporation will experience intense surface drying increasing the risk of flooding when intense storms occur. [4]

What impact does this have on Coral Reefs?

Increased Sea Surface Temperatures leads to Coral Bleaching, which is a stress response that causes the coral to expel their zooxanthellae or lose algal pigmentation. Corals are very sensitive to temperature changes, confirmed by the research indicating that bleaching can be triggered when the thermal condition is as little as 1 C higher than the mean summer maximum. [5] There is, according to a different study, evidence emerging of possible thermal thresholds in the range of 30-32 C for some physiological processes of coral reef organisms. [6] If the coral is stressed by temperatures outside of this range, certain physiological processes suffer decreased function. In research conducted from June to October 2005, satellite-based sea surface temperature observations from the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) detected a large region of warming ocean temperatures that reached a maximum anomaly of +1.2°C vs. the long-term mean when averaged across all Caribbean reef sites. In several locations in the oceanic regions with increased temperatures, coral mortality exceeded 50%. Along with coral bleaching due to increased sea surface temperatures, decreased processes of coral physiology resulted in a loss of resistance to pathogenic disease and an increased abundance of microbial pathogens [7] This research confirms that increasing sea surface temperatures have a damaging impact on corals beyond bleaching including disease.

For another impact of increasing sea surface temperatures on coral reefs, please visit The Potential Link Between Sea Surface Temperatures and Flooding

Increasing Sea Surface Temperatures [8]

What are some predictions in the scientific community in response to current trends?

Two scientific studies were analyzed to yield both positive and negative data regarding coral reef adaptation in response to increasing sea surface temperatures.

The first scientific study was measuring poleward expansion potential of the coral reef in response to rising sea surface temperatures. The study found that the speed of coral range expansion could reach up to 14 km/year if the reefs were expanding in a region of poleward current flows. Typically coral reefs expand at a rate of 5km/year. While the study yields promising results for future coral expansion into marine environments with a more suitable temperature range, this expansion is only possible given the condition of poleward currents pushing the coral's expansion. [9]

The second scientific study sought to measure the impact of global warming, which directly increases sea surface temperatures through convection, on coral reefs. The study results concluded that an increase of 2 degrees Celsius global mean warming would result in a long-term degradation of all coral reef ecosystems, without a change in thermal tolerance. That is if the temperature were to increase by 2 degrees Celsius, without any adaptive measures the coral reef worldwide would suffer bleaching, stressed physiological processes, and death over the long-term. An increase of 1.5 degrees Celsius global mean warming would result in 89% of all coral reef ecosystems suffering long-term degradation if unable to adequately adapt to increased temperatures. In order to maintain 50% of the coral reef cells, the global mean temperature could rise no more than 1.2 degrees Celsius. This study indicates a serious need for either widespread coral adaptation to increasing sea surface temperatures or extensive limits on sea surface temperature increases to prevent the long-term degradation of coral reef ecosystems. [10]

What are some things we can do to slow down rising Sea Surface Temperatures and their effects?

  • Reduce Carbon Emissions and pollutants, especially since it causes ocean acidification
  • Increase protection for coral to mitigate other threats and make it less vulnerable with marine protected areas MPAs
  • Lower the amount of nutrient overloading
  • Increase vegetation cover to prevent sediment runoff

Do warmer Sea Surface Temperatures (SST) play a role in increased Flooding?

There are many factors that contribute to the rise in sea surface temperatures (SST). The two main factors are human activities such as pollution, and natural heat exchange. This has become a large problem for many reasons. SSTs play an important role in the ocean's heat content and they also regulate the climate and control weather changes. For example, higher ocean temperatures have been shown to lead to more severe storms. This is because warmer surface water dissipates more readily into vapor, making it easier for small ocean storms to escalate into larger, more powerful storms. Records show that their has been an increase in strength and prevalence of tropical storms such as hurricanes and cyclones. [11]
According to the European Environmental Agency (EEA), in 2015 the sea surface temperatures were approximately one degree Celsius higher than 140 years ago. [12] These temperature increases are expected to persist, as well. Due to these changes, during the 20th century, sea levels rose 15-20cm (1.5-2.0 mm/year). In the past decade, studies have indicated that sea levels have jumped to 3.1 mm/year. According to John Church and James Hansen, 21st century sea levels rise estimates range from 1-2 meters. [13] While this may not seem major, studies show that a sea level increase of even half a meter can cause severe damage to Small Island Developing States (SIDS)who are most affected by sea surface temperature changes, tropical storms, and sea level rises. [14] Many Pacific countries have already reported regular floods from ocean water. Concern for future flooding continues to be expressed.
Thermal expansion has also been a large problem. This occurs when the water temperature increases and water surface area expands due to the high activity of water particles. Scientists have estimated that thermal expansion alone has contributed to 2.5 cm of sea level rise in the last half of the 20th century. [15] These findings demonstrate that warmer sea surface temperatures lead to an increase in flooding through the rise in sea levels, the increase in strong storms, and thermal expansion. The primary cause for all of these changes is human pollution.

Notes

  1. http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/science/indicators/oceans/sea-surface-temp.html
  2. 2.0 2.1 Sea Surface Temperature. NASA, n.d. Web. 15 Apr. 2014. http://podaac.jpl.nasa.gov/SeaSurfaceTemperature
  3. Smith, Murray, Craig Stevens, Mike Harvey, and Kim Currie. "The Ocean Surface: The Greenhouse Bottleneck." Homepage. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Apr. 2014.
  4. 4.0 4.1 Griffis, Roger B., and Jennifer Howard. Oceans and Marine Resources in a Changing Climate: A Technical Input to the 2013 National Climate Assessment. Washington: Island, 2013. Print.
  5. Peñaflor, E. L., W. J. Skirving, A. E. Strong, S. F. Heron, and L. T. David. "Sea-surface Temperature and Thermal Stress in the Coral Triangle over the past Two Decades." Coral Reefs 28.4 (2009): 841-50. Web.
  6. Lough, J. M. "Small Change, Big Difference: Sea Surface Temperature Distributions for Tropical Coral Reef Ecosystems, 1950–2011." Journal of Geophysical Research 117.C9 (2012): n. pag. Web.
  7. Eakin, C. Mark, Jessica A. Morgan, Scott F. Heron, Tyler B. Smith, Gang Liu, Lorenzo Alvarez-Filip, Bart Baca, Erich Bartels, Carolina Bastidas, Claude Bouchon, Marilyn Brandt, Andrew W. Bruckner, Lucy Bunkley-Williams, Andrew Cameron, Billy D. Causey, Mark Chiappone, Tyler R. L. Christensen, M. James C Crabbe, Owen Day, Elena De La Guardia, Guillermo Díaz-Pulido, Daniel Diresta, Diego L. Gil-Agudelo, David S. Gilliam, Robert N. Ginsburg, Shannon Gore, Héctor M. Guzmán, James C. Hendee, Edwin A. Hernández-Delgado, Ellen Husain, Christopher F. G. Jeffrey, Ross J. Jones, Eric Jordán-Dahlgren, Les S. Kaufman, David I. Kline, Philip A. Kramer, Judith C. Lang, Diego Lirman, Jennie Mallela, Carrie Manfrino, Jean-Philippe Maréchal, Ken Marks, Jennifer Mihaly, W. Jeff Miller, Erich M. Mueller, Erinn M. Muller, Carlos A. Orozco Toro, Hazel A. Oxenford, Daniel Ponce-Taylor, Norman Quinn, Kim B. Ritchie, Sebastián Rodríguez, Alberto Rodríguez Ramírez, Sandra Romano, Jameal F. Samhouri, Juan A. Sánchez, George P. Schmahl, Burton V. Shank, William J. Skirving, Sascha C. C. Steiner, Estrella Villamizar, Sheila M. Walsh, Cory Walter, Ernesto Weil, Ernest H. Williams, Kimberly Woody Roberson, and Yusri Yusuf. "Caribbean Corals in Crisis: Record Thermal Stress, Bleaching, and Mortality in 2005." Ed. Tamara Natasha Romanuk. PLoS ONE 5.11 (2010): Web.
  8. http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/science/indicators/oceans/sea-surface-temp.html
  9. Yamano, Hiroya, Kaoru Sugihara, and Keiichi Nomura. "Rapid Poleward Range Expansion of Tropical Reef Corals in Response to Rising Sea Surface Temperatures." Geophysical Research Letters 38.4 (2011): Web.
  10. Frieler, K., M. Meinshausen, A. Golly, M. Mengel, K. Lebek, S. D. Donner, and O. Hoegh-Guldberg. "Limiting Global Warming to 2 °C Is Unlikely to save Most Coral Reefs." Nature Climate Change 3.2 (2012): 165-70. Web.
  11. Wilson, Mark. "Sea Temperature Rise -- Pristine Seas -- National Geographic." National Geographic. National Geographic, 2016. Web. 13 Apr. 2016.
  12. "Rising Sea Surface Temperature: Towards Ice-free Arctic Summers and a Changing Marine Food Chain." — European Environment Agency. European Environment Agency, 24 Mar. 2015. Web. 13 Apr. 2016.
  13. "OCEANS & SEA LEVEL RISE." Climate Change and Sea Level Rise. Climate Institute, 2010. Web. 13 Apr. 2016.
  14. Hon, Tom R. "Autumn 2009 Climate Alert." : The High Stakes for Small Islands. Climate Institute, 2010. Web. 13 Apr. 2016.
  15. "OCEANS & SEA LEVEL RISE." Climate Change and Sea Level Rise. Climate Institute, 2010. Web. 13 Apr. 2016.
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