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'''How are Marine Reserves different than Marine Protected Areas?'''
'''How are Marine Reserves different than Marine Protected Areas?'''
*A marine reserve is a subset of marine protected areas, and is distinguished by being a defined area where some or all fishing is prohibited for a lengthy period of time
*A marine reserve is a subset of marine protected areas, and is distinguished by being a defined area where some or all fishing is prohibited for a certain period of time.
*While Marine Protected Areas represent an effort to conserve the marine environment, marine reserves focus specifically on fishing limitations
*While Marine Protected Areas represent an effort to conserve the marine environment, marine reserves focus specifically on fishing limitations and represent a higher level of protection than Marine Protected Areas.
*Can be a valuable management tool when fish stocks are uncertain
*Marine reserves can be a valuable management tool when fish stocks are uncertain. The areas adjacent to the Marine Reserve will also benefit from the spill over effect. For example, if a particular Marine Reserve is designed as "no-take" or if fishing is prohibited, fish populations will thrive in that area. Since there are no real, physical boundaries around a Marine Reserve, nothing is preventing fish from swimming across the imaginary line out of the reserve. This then increases the population of fish inside the Marine Reserve as well as in the adjacent areas, and can help to significantly restore fish populations. However, once the fish is outside the Marine Reserve, it is at a higher risk of being caught.
*By preventing fishing in Marine Reserves, ecosystems and species that would otherwise be fished have the chance to develop and grow into mature adults without being caught
*By preventing fishing in Marine Reserves, ecosystems and species that would otherwise be fished have the chance to develop and grow into mature adults without being caught
*Opportunity for ecosystem development and increased resilience in an increasingly acidic and warming ocean
*Marine Reserves provide opportunity for ecosystem development and increased resilience in an increasingly acidic and warming ocean
*Objectives of Marine Reserves: stock rebuilding, biological productivity, economic productivity, habitat protection, research and education.
*Objectives of Marine Reserves include stock rebuilding, biological productivity, economic productivity, habitat protection, research and education.
*Similar to a “fishery reserve” : “Zoning that precludes fishing activity on some or all species to protect critical habitat, rebuild stocks (long term, but not necessarily permanent closure), provide insurance against overfishing, or enhance fishery yield.” (Ocean Studies Board, 2001) [9]
*Marine reserves are similar to a “fishery reserves”, which are defined by : “Zoning that precludes fishing activity on some or all species to protect critical habitat, rebuild stocks (long term, but not necessarily permanent closure), provide insurance against overfishing, or enhance fishery yield.” <ref> "Habitat and Communities: Marine Reserves and Marine Protected Areas." Marine Reserves and Marine Protected Areas. N.p., 1 Feb. 2013. Web. 21 Feb. 2014. <http://www.pcouncil.org/habitat-and-communities/marine-protected-areas/>. </ref>




'''Why aren’t there more closed areas?'''
'''Why aren’t there more closed areas?'''
*Many forces are at play when it comes to instituting marine reserves.
*Many forces are at play when it comes to instituting marine reserves, and mainly it mainly comes down to the fact that it is very difficult to regulate fishing practices in something as vast, large and continuous as the ocean unless a particular Marine Reserve has it's own authorities. People may oppose restrictions put in place by Marine Reserves because it prevents them from fishing, which may be their source of livelihood. People and fishermen don't want to be told that they can't fish.
*Since there is a limitation placed on fishing, there is a very limited area
*There are two authorities regarding marine reserves; the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act and the National Marine Sanctuaries Act.
*Two authorities regarding marine reserves; the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act and the National Marine Sanctuaries Act.
*The councils only have control over fishing regulations, not over dumping, dredging, or other potentially harmful human activities. Therefore, these agencies set the rules for the fishing limitations in a Marine Reserve but have no authority to regulate other forms of destruction to the marine area. Because of these two large governing bodies, it is almost impossible to regulate and enforce the rules of Marine Reserves.
*The councils only have control over fishing regulations, not over dumping, dredging, or other potentially harmful human activities
*The vastness and ever-changing nature of the ocean makes it difficult to study, maintain and monitor.
*People and fisherman don’t want to be told that they can’t fish
*Complexities regarding tides, ocean current, enormity of the number of species, poaching and illegal fishing are also a factor.[11]
*Difficult to study, maintain and monitor because of the vastness and continuity of the ocean
*Successful reserves require careful scientific design and need time for recovery. Not all areas would benefit from being turned into a Marine Reserve, and some places need more protection than others. It is important to carefully consider the species in a potential Marine Reserve location and to predict the impacts of this protection on the ecosystem before a Marine Reserve is designated.
*Complexities regarding tides, ocean current, enormity of the number of species, poaching and illegal fishing [11]
*Successful reserves require careful scientific design and need time for recovery





Revision as of 23:18, 15 April 2014

Marine Reserves and Marine Wilderness Areas

Coral reefs are ecosystems that are highly susceptible to human and environmental threats. For example, 80% of coral reefs in the Caribbean have disappeared in the last 30 years [1], and only 10% of large, predatory fish populations exist since pre-industrial times. [2] The threats causing coral reefs to disappear include: pollution, deep sea mining, overfishing, climate change, and coastal erosion due to both natural causes and human development. [3] The devastating effects these threats have on coral reefs not only impact the ecosystem, but also the local economies which depend on healthy reefs. For example, fishermen near coral reefs depend on an adequate amount of fish to sell, and fish will only stay and grow in healthy reefs, thus it is vital for the fishermen's livelihood that the coral reefs remain undamaged. [4] In order to stop, and possibly reverse, these damaging effects on coral reefs, marine reserves and marine protected areas (MPA's) are suggested methods for implementation. [5] However, as of February 2014, only:

  • 1.6% of the world's ocean is protected in a marine protected area (MPA) [6] .
  • And <0.2% of the world's ocean is protected by marine reserves [7] .


What are Marine Reserves?

By definition, a marine reserve is an area of ocean where organisms and their habitats are completely protected by law from removal or alteration, and they are similar to national parks. Thus, fishermen cannot fish in these areas, and no plants or animals may be removed by tourists or aquarium traders. Also, deep sea mining companies cannot extract resources from these areas because their machines will impact and alter the habitats. [8]

Global average of change within marine reserves (photo courtesy of piscoweb.org 2007)

How marine reserves help coral reefs:

  • Number of species are higher, which helps to protect diversity [9]
  • Organisms can grow larger, thus reaching and maintaining viable reproductive ages. The organisms in the marine reserve are able to reproduce more as a result of these factors, which leads to greater numbers in the population. [10]
  • Habitats can recover more quickly to threats than if fished, so the ecosystems are more sustainable [11]
  • The borders of marine reserves are porous, which can affects populations outside of its borders. Fish from the reserve can reach a high enough population density that a some fish can spillover into waters neighboring the reserve. This in turn can replenish nearby populations depleted by fishing practices. [12]
    • Similarly, there is the reseeding effect where fish eggs can drift, hatch, grow up and then mate outside of the marine reserve.

Marine reserves are a useful conservation tool if carefully designed and enforced. Scientific data must be used to find the areas of the ocean where a marine reserve would most effectively be established, and then proper law enforcement, that takes into account local cultural practices, should make sure the marine reserve is not abused by humans. However, marine reserves should not replace other traditional management practices, such as catch quotas and gear restrictions. [13]


World map of current Marine Reserves (photo courtesy of piscoweb.org 2007)

Where are Marine reserves now?

  • According to the map pictured at left, every continent, aside from Antartica, has at least 5 marine reserves. However, these marine reserves only protect <0.2% of the world's ocean [14] .
  • UNEP (United Nations Environmental Program) has set the goal of increasing this, particularly by putting 10% of the world's ocean under the protection of marine reserves by the year 2020. [15] .




How are Marine Reserves different than Marine Protected Areas?

  • A marine reserve is a subset of marine protected areas, and is distinguished by being a defined area where some or all fishing is prohibited for a certain period of time.
  • While Marine Protected Areas represent an effort to conserve the marine environment, marine reserves focus specifically on fishing limitations and represent a higher level of protection than Marine Protected Areas.
  • Marine reserves can be a valuable management tool when fish stocks are uncertain. The areas adjacent to the Marine Reserve will also benefit from the spill over effect. For example, if a particular Marine Reserve is designed as "no-take" or if fishing is prohibited, fish populations will thrive in that area. Since there are no real, physical boundaries around a Marine Reserve, nothing is preventing fish from swimming across the imaginary line out of the reserve. This then increases the population of fish inside the Marine Reserve as well as in the adjacent areas, and can help to significantly restore fish populations. However, once the fish is outside the Marine Reserve, it is at a higher risk of being caught.
  • By preventing fishing in Marine Reserves, ecosystems and species that would otherwise be fished have the chance to develop and grow into mature adults without being caught
  • Marine Reserves provide opportunity for ecosystem development and increased resilience in an increasingly acidic and warming ocean
  • Objectives of Marine Reserves include stock rebuilding, biological productivity, economic productivity, habitat protection, research and education.
  • Marine reserves are similar to a “fishery reserves”, which are defined by : “Zoning that precludes fishing activity on some or all species to protect critical habitat, rebuild stocks (long term, but not necessarily permanent closure), provide insurance against overfishing, or enhance fishery yield.” [16]


Why aren’t there more closed areas?

  • Many forces are at play when it comes to instituting marine reserves, and mainly it mainly comes down to the fact that it is very difficult to regulate fishing practices in something as vast, large and continuous as the ocean unless a particular Marine Reserve has it's own authorities. People may oppose restrictions put in place by Marine Reserves because it prevents them from fishing, which may be their source of livelihood. People and fishermen don't want to be told that they can't fish.
  • There are two authorities regarding marine reserves; the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act and the National Marine Sanctuaries Act.
  • The councils only have control over fishing regulations, not over dumping, dredging, or other potentially harmful human activities. Therefore, these agencies set the rules for the fishing limitations in a Marine Reserve but have no authority to regulate other forms of destruction to the marine area. Because of these two large governing bodies, it is almost impossible to regulate and enforce the rules of Marine Reserves.
  • The vastness and ever-changing nature of the ocean makes it difficult to study, maintain and monitor.
  • Complexities regarding tides, ocean current, enormity of the number of species, poaching and illegal fishing are also a factor.[11]
  • Successful reserves require careful scientific design and need time for recovery. Not all areas would benefit from being turned into a Marine Reserve, and some places need more protection than others. It is important to carefully consider the species in a potential Marine Reserve location and to predict the impacts of this protection on the ecosystem before a Marine Reserve is designated.



Notes

  1. Burcke, James. "Catlin Group." Catlin. Catlin Seaview Survey, 21 July 2013.
  2. "Article: Understanding a Marine Wilderness (in Parts)." AMNH. American Museum of National History, n.d.
  3. "The Oceans Are in a Crisis. Greenpeace Has a Plan to save Them." Greenpeace International. N.p., Apr. 2010. Web. 14 Apr. 2014.
  4. "The Oceans Are in a Crisis. Greenpeace Has a Plan to save Them." Greenpeace International. N.p., Apr. 2010. Web. 14 Apr. 2014.
  5. "The Oceans Are in a Crisis. Greenpeace Has a Plan to save Them." Greenpeace International. N.p., Apr. 2010. Web. 14 Apr. 2014.
  6. Eddy, T. D. "One Hundred-Fold Difference between Perceived and Actual Levels of Marine Protection in New Zealand." Marine Policy 46 (2014): 61-7. SCOPUS. Web. 22 February 2014.
  7. Eddy, T. D. "One Hundred-Fold Difference between Perceived and Actual Levels of Marine Protection in New Zealand." Marine Policy 46 (2014): 61-7. SCOPUS. Web. 22 February 2014.
  8. "The Oceans Are in a Crisis. Greenpeace Has a Plan to save Them." Greenpeace International. N.p., Apr. 2010. Web. 14 Apr. 2014.
  9. "No-take Marine Reserve Basics." Advocates for Wild, Healthy Oceans. The Ocean Conservancy, 27 July 2012
  10. "No-take Marine Reserve Basics." Advocates for Wild, Healthy Oceans. The Ocean Conservancy, 27 July 2012
  11. "No-take Marine Reserve Basics." Advocates for Wild, Healthy Oceans. The Ocean Conservancy, 27 July 2012
  12. McClanahan, T. R. "Recovery of Functional Groups and Trophic Relationships in Tropical Fisheries Closures." Marine Ecology Progress Series 497 (2014): 13-23. SCOPUS.Web. 22 February 2014.
  13. "Article: Understanding a Marine Wilderness (in Parts)." AMNH. American Museum of National History, n.d.
  14. Eddy, T. D. "One Hundred-Fold Difference between Perceived and Actual Levels of Marine Protection in New Zealand." Marine Policy 46 (2014): 61-7. SCOPUS. Web. 22 February 2014.
  15. Eddy, T. D. "One Hundred-Fold Difference between Perceived and Actual Levels of Marine Protection in New Zealand." Marine Policy 46 (2014): 61-7. SCOPUS. Web. 22 February 2014.
  16. "Habitat and Communities: Marine Reserves and Marine Protected Areas." Marine Reserves and Marine Protected Areas. N.p., 1 Feb. 2013. Web. 21 Feb. 2014. <http://www.pcouncil.org/habitat-and-communities/marine-protected-areas/>.
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